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Technical Objectives (DTOs). DSO data typically involved small numbers of crewmember subjects, which limited valid statistical analyses. Bungo et al. 1 documented results from activities completed before the Challenger accident in 1986. A 3-yr flight hiatus followed the loss of Challenger and its crew. In February 1989, biomedical DSOs were given a new focus and increased priority with the initiation of the 5-yr, $40M Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project (EDOMP). Prior to the EDOMP, all Shuttle flights were under 10 d. A Shuttle Program Directive authorized

Long-duration flight missions in single-piloted aircraft are currently feasible due to increased operational capabilities of the fifth-generation aircrafts and changes in types of military operations. Air policing missions assisted by air-refueling or multiple stops can last more than 5 h, with possible extension for more than 9 h. Concurrently, prolonged engagement in operational tasks can lead to fatigue. 4 Fatigue, in general, may impair a variety of cognitive skills and functions – such as degradation of accuracy and timing, multitasking (attention

loss still occurs in the lumbar spine and femur. 38 – 40 Although exercise may be considered sufficient for short duration spaceflights, pharmacological countermeasures should be considered for longer spaceflights. To date, only alendronate has been assessed with a bed rest study 26 and clinical trial during spaceflight. 25 While demonstrating maintenance of bone density, the method of administration and common side-effects are an issue, with 2 out of 11 astronauts participating in the in-flight study withdrawing due to gastrointestinal side