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As humans venture beyond low Earth orbit on deep space exploration class missions (ECMs), the likelihood of a serious medical emergency on a long-duration flight is not a matter of if, but rather when. Prior studies have estimated the risk of a serious medical event to be 0.06 per person-year of flight, which translates to at least one major event expected for a 6-person crew on a 900-d mission to Mars. 12 To prepare for upcoming ECMs, NASA presented the Technology Roadmap in 2015, which enumerates the necessary medical advancements and accommodations

apoptosis, in as few as 3 d. 78 These changes induce higher resorption during spaceflight. Cessation of gravity and mechanical loading impacts cell remodeling pathways and subsequent osteoblast and osteoclast activity. Such pathways include transmembrane DNA nuclear factor kappaB (NF- k B), sometimes called RANK. 6 , 82 NF- k B activates genes that cause in-flight muscle and bone loss. NF- k B rose ∼500% in microgravity and was elevated 14 d postflight. 6 , 94 NF- k B is activated by the cytokine TNF-α 94 . As RANK binds to its

500-d period, which allowed for the examination of long-term retention and transfer. The purpose of Experiment 2 was to compare astronaut candidate, candidate-like, and undergraduate subjects on a complex task. The continuous memory-updating task involves learning name-location associations and both prospective and retrospective memory. 9 For this task, subjects are told that they are tracking the locations of different crewmembers on a planetary surface and, in most cases, have to report the location later by clicking on a map labeled Spacecraft, but in